Qutb Shahi Dynasty

Aspect	Details
Founder	Sultan Quli Qutb-ul-Mulk
Period	1512 – 1687 CE (approximately 175 years)
Capital	Initially Golconda; later Hyderabad, founded by Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah.
Religion	The rulers were Shia Muslims. They followed the administrative principles of Siasat Nama while respecting local Hindu customs.
Major Contemporaries	Vijayanagar Empire; the Deccan Sultanates of Bijapur, Berar, Bidar, and Ahmadnagar; the Mughal Empire; and the Marathas.
Legacy	The Qutb Shahi rulers encouraged agriculture, irrigation, industry, trade, literature, and architecture, leaving a lasting impact on the history of the Deccan.

1. Inscriptions

Inscription	Issued By	Significance
Ghazinagar Inscription	Ibrahim Quli Qutb Shah	Records the achievements and activities of Ibrahim Quli Qutb Shah.
Badshah-e-Ashurkhana Inscription	-	Associated with religious practices and Shia traditions.
Darus Shifa Inscription	Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah	Records the construction of the famous hospital Dar-us-Shifa.
Miyan Misq Inscription	Abul Hasan Tanashah	Important inscription of the last Qutb Shahi ruler.
Pangal and Koilkonda Inscriptions	Various rulers	Provide valuable information about military campaigns and political events.

2. Literary Work

Work	Author	Significance
Basantin-us-Salatin (Dastur-ul-Amal)	Mirza Ibrahim Zubari	A concise work written in about 13 pages providing authentic information about Qutb Shahi polity, administration, and structure of government.
Date	Contemporary of Abdullah Qutb Shah (1626–1672)	According to historian H.K. Sherwani.
Model	Based on Siasat Nama by Nizam-ul-Mulk Tusi	Discussed the duties and objectives of a Sultan. The Qutb Shahi rulers followed its administrative guidelines while respecting local customs and laws.

1.Sultan Quli Qutb Shah (1512 – 1543 CE)

Background & Rise to Power

Aspect	Details
Origin	A scion of the royal family of Hamdan and a survivor of the Qara Quyunlu (Black Sheep) Turkistan tribe.
Migration	Fled factional conflicts in Central Asia and moved to the Deccan during the closing years of the reign of Muhammad Shah Bahmani. He eventually settled at Bidar.
Early Career	Enlisted in the royal bodyguard. For his services he was awarded the district of Warangal as a Jagir along with 150 Arab horses.
Titles Received	• Khawas Khan (1487) – for saving the Sultan’s life • Qutb-ul-Mulk (Pillar of the State) – for suppressing rebellion in Konkan • Amir-ul-Umra – later title • Appointed Tarafdar (Governor) of Telangana with Golconda as headquarters
Declaration of Independence	Declared independence in 1512 CE. He waited until the Bahmani kingdom weakened even though other provinces had already declared independence as early as 1489 CE.

Military Campaigns & Expansion

Campaign	Details
Strategy	Waited for the Vijayanagar Empire to weaken due to internal conflicts. Strengthened Golconda Fort, reorganized the army, and suppressed local rebellions.
Battle of Khammamet	Defeated the Hindu chief Sitapati.
Penganchiprolu	Follow-up victory consolidating control over the region.
Battle of Pangal	Achieved decisive victory over the combined forces of Vijayanagar and Devarakonda.
Territorial Acquisitions	Captured Ghanpur, Koilkonda, Kondavidu, Kondapalli, and Bellamkonda from Achyuta Raya of Vijayanagar and forced payment of annual tribute.
Other Conquests	Suppressed a revolt at Nalgonda and acquired Medak from the ruler of Bidar.

Legacy and Death

Aspect	Details
Legacy	Rose from a royal bodyguard to establish a powerful kingdom covering large parts of Coastal Andhra, Rayalaseema, and Telangana.
Duration of Rule	24 years as Bahmani governor and 26 years as independent ruler — a total of about 50 years of rule.
Death	Assassinated by his third son Jamsheed during afternoon prayer after a civil war broke out among his sons.

2.Jamsheed Quli Qutb Shah (1543 – 1550 CE)

Aspect	Details
Reign	Ruled for 7 years. His reign is often described as the "ugliest chapter" in Golconda history due to treachery and fratricidal conflicts.

Consolidation of Power

Action	Details
Murder of Mahmud Hamdani	After killing his father Sultan Quli, Jamsheed murdered Mahmud Hamdani (the assassin he had hired) in order to conceal his involvement in the crime.
Brother's Flight	His brother Ibrahim fled first to Bidar and later to the Vijayanagar Empire, where he received protection from Rama Raya for about seven years.

Military Campaigns

Campaign	Details
Alliance with Ahmadnagar	Formed an alliance with Burhan Nizam Shah of Ahmadnagar against the combined forces of Bidar and Bijapur.
Shift in Alliance	Later aligned with Bijapur and Ahmadnagar to overpower Ali Barid of Bidar, even deceiving Ibrahim Adil Shah.
Battle of Narayanakhed	Defeated the forces of Ali Barid and Ibrahim Adil Shah.

Death

Aspect	Details
Death	Died of cancer in 1550 CE.
Aftermath	After his death, a power struggle began and an invitation was sent to his exiled brother Ibrahim Quli Qutb Shah to return and assume the throne.

3.Ibrahim Quli Qutb Shah (1550 – 1580 CE)

Aspect	Details
Accession	Returned to Golconda from Vijayanagar with the help of Aliya Ramaraya after the death of Jamsheed Quli Qutb Shah.
Contemporary	Mughal emperor Akbar.
Reign	Ruled for about 30 years; during this period the glory of Golconda expanded in political, military, and cultural fields.
Diplomatic Style	Preferred diplomacy and political strategy, relying more on "craft than on valour" in interstate relations.

Relations with Vijayanagar and Deccan Sultanates

Event	Details
Initial Relations	Initially maintained friendly relations with Vijayanagar, but later relations with Aliya Ramaraya deteriorated.
Treaty with Ramaraya	Forced to surrender the forts of Pangal and Ghanpur, accepting the supremacy of Vijayanagar in South India.
Result	This humiliation led to the formation of a coalition of the Deccan Sultanates (Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Golconda, and Bidar) against Vijayanagar.
Battle of Rakshasi-Tangadi (Talikota), 1565	The allied Deccan Sultanates defeated the Vijayanagar Empire, leading to its eventual decline and collapse.

Expansion after the Fall of Vijayanagar

Campaign	Details
Rajahmundry Expedition	Forced local chiefs such as Sitapati and Vidyadhar to surrender the fort.
Kasimkota	Occupied and brought under Golconda control.
Southern Orissa	Subjugated territories up to Potnur.
Campaigns of 1579	Captured Udayagiri, followed by Vinukonda, Kocharlakota, Cumbum, and Kondavidu in April 1579.

Death

Aspect	Details
Death	Died in 1580 CE while campaigning near Bijapur.

4.Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah (1580 – 1612 CE)

Military Campaigns

Campaign	Details
Conflict with Bijapur	Continued conflicts with the Bijapur Sultanate. Bijapur's citadel was defended bravely by Chand Bibi.
Suppression of Revolts	Successfully suppressed revolts in Kondavidu, Nandyal, and Gandikota.
Southern Expedition	Crossed the Krishna River and attacked Muslimadugu (famous diamond mines). Subjugated regions such as Nandyal, Velgode, Sirvel, Jammalamadugu, and Chennur.

Mughal Expansion in the Deccan

Event	Details
Support to Ahmadnagar	Joined Bijapur in sending armies to assist Ahmadnagar against the advancing Mughal forces.
Fall of Ahmadnagar City	The Mughals occupied the city in 1595, though the fort continued to resist due to the leadership of Chand Bibi.
Treaty	As part of negotiations, the Ahmadnagar rulers ceded the province of Berar to the Mughals.
Battle of Sonapet (1597)	The allied Deccan forces suffered defeat at the hands of the Mughals.
Final Fall of Ahmadnagar	In 1600 CE, Ahmadnagar finally fell to the Mughals after the death of Chand Bibi.

Relations with the Mughals

Aspect	Details
Relations with Akbar	Received the envoy of Emperor Akbar with great respect and sent costly gifts. Friendly relations were maintained until Akbar's death in 1605.
Relations with Jahangir	During the reign of Jahangir, Mughal pressure and attacks weakened the cordial relations.

Death

Aspect	Details
Death	Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah died in 1612 CE.

5.Sultan Muhammad Qutb Shah (1612 – 1626 CE)

Aspect	Details
Accession	Son of Mirza Muhammad Amin and nephew of Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah. He ascended the throne in November 1612.
Marriage	Married Hayat Baksh Begum, the daughter of Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah.

Relations with the Mughals

Event	Details
Treaty with Mughals	Along with the Bijapur Sultanate, he signed a treaty agreeing to pay an annual tribute (peshkash) of about twenty lakhs to the Mughals.
Support to Shah Jahan	Secretly assisted the rebel Mughal prince Shah Jahan by providing cash and cereals when the prince sought refuge in the Deccan.

Economic Policy

Aspect	Details
European Trade	Encouraged European trading companies, particularly the Dutch and the English, to establish trading centres on the east coast.
Dutch Factories	Dutch trading factories were established at Machilipatnam, Nizampatanam, Pulicat, and Nagapatnam, mainly for the export of textiles.

Death

Aspect	Details
Death	Died in January 1626 CE, around the same time as Malik Ambar and the Mughal emperor Jahangir.
Significance	His death marked the beginning of a new phase of Mughal expansion in the Deccan.

6.Abdullah Qutb Shah (1626 – 1672 CE)

Aspect	Details
Accession	Ascended the throne at the age of fifteen. During the early years of his reign, the administration was managed by his mother Hayat Baksh Begum.

Conflict with the Mughals

Event	Details
Shah Jahan's Demand	The Mughal emperor Shah Jahan issued a farman demanding: • Omission of the Shah of Iran's name in Friday prayers • Payment of Peshkash • Introduction of coins in the emperor's name • Recitation of the names of the four Sunni Caliphs
Compliance	Abdullah Qutb Shah complied partially and paid the first instalment of eight lakhs of hons along with rich gifts.

Mir Jumla's Rebellion and Mughal Invasion

Event	Details
Rebellion	Prime Minister Muhammad Syed Mir Jumla rebelled and joined Mughal viceroy Aurangzeb.
Aurangzeb's Invasion (1655–1656)	Aurangzeb captured Hyderabad and laid siege to Golconda Fort in 1656.
Submission Terms	Abdullah Qutb Shah agreed to: • Marry his eldest daughter to Prince Muhammad, son of Aurangzeb • Cede Ramgir as dowry • Pay an indemnity of ten lakhs of hons

Relations with Marathas and Europeans

Aspect	Details
Shivaji	Permitted Shivaji in 1669 to collect Chauth and Sardeshmukhi within the Golconda kingdom.
English Trade	Continued granting concessions to the English. The English East India Company had established a factory at Madras (Chennai) in 1639, which later developed into Fort St. George.

Death

Aspect	Details
Death	Abdullah Qutb Shah died in 1672 CE.

7.Abul Hasan Tanashah (1672 – 1687 CE)

Aspect	Details
Accession	Last ruler of the Qutb Shahi dynasty.
Treasury	Inherited an enormous treasury of about fifty crores and five lakhs of hons.

Administration

Appointee	Position	Details
Madanna	Prime Minister	Appointed to the highest administrative post and filled many offices with his co-religionists.
Akkanna	Minister of Armed Forces	Brother of Madanna and an influential figure in the administration.
Gopanna (Bhakta Ramadasu)	Revenue Officer of Palwancha Pargana	Nephew of Madanna and Akkanna. He spent government funds for the construction of the Bhadrachalam Sri Rama Temple. He was imprisoned by the Sultan, though tradition states he was later released through divine intervention.

Relations with Marathas and Mughals

Event	Details
Shivaji	Shivaji collected twenty lakhs of hons from Abul Hasan during the peak of his power.
1677	Bijapur allied with the Mughals and forced Golconda to pay a large indemnity.
Agreement with Shivaji	In the same year, Shivaji entered into an agreement with Abul Hasan to partition certain territories.

Conflict with Aurangzeb and Fall of Golconda

Event	Details
Aurangzeb's Charges	Aurangzeb accused Abul Hasan of: • Appointing Hindus (Madanna and Akkanna) to high offices • Implementing Hindu administrative practices • Tolerating immoral activities
Demand	Aurangzeb demanded the removal of Madanna and Akkanna and payment of a huge tribute.
Refusal	Abul Hasan refused to accept these demands.
Murder of Ministers	Madanna and Akkanna were murdered by a conspiracy involving nobles and members of the royal harem.
Siege of Golconda	The Mughal siege began in January 1687 and lasted for about eight months.
Fall of Golconda	Golconda fell to the Mughals due to treachery by some of the Sultan's generals.
Capture	Abul Hasan was captured and imprisoned in the Daulatabad Fort for the rest of his life.
Death	Died in 1700 CE after a prolonged hunger strike.

The administrative system introduced by the Qutb Shahi Sultans was distinctive, combining Islamic administrative principles with local customs and traditions.

1. Central Government

A) The Sultan

Aspect	Details
Position	The Sultan was the absolute head of the state. He acted as the chief of the legislature, judiciary, and executive, and also served as the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces.
Divine Right	The Sultan claimed divine authority and was regarded as 'Zillullah' (Shadow of God on Earth).
Lifestyle	Lived in great splendour and rarely appeared in public. The palace, royal attire, and headgear were adorned with diamonds and precious gems. This was noted by a Persian envoy who visited the court of Abdullah Qutb Shah (1636–37).
Celebrations	Grand celebrations were organized on occasions such as royal birthdays, marriages, and military victories.

B) Council of Ministers (Majlis-i-Diwandari)

Period	Details
Ibrahim Quli Qutb Shah	The council was known as 'Majlis-i-Kingash'. It met mainly during emergencies.
Abdullah Qutb Shah	The council developed into a well-organized body known as Majlis-i-Diwandari. It met daily, and some members were appointed as ambassadors. For example, Yusuf Shah was sent as an envoy to the court of Jahangir in 1630.

Key Ministerial Posts in Qutb Shahi Administration

Post	Role	Details
Peshwa / Vakil (Prime Minister)	Head of Administration	Most renowned holder was Shaikh Muhammad (Ibn-i-Khatun). Salary: 12,000 Hons. During the reign of Abul Hasan Tanashah, the office was converted into Diwan. Madanna served as the last Diwan.
Mir Jumla (Jumlat-ul-Mulk) (Finance Minister)	Head of Finance Department	Responsible for collection of taxes and customs, allocation of funds, and supervision of accounts. Notable holders included Mir Momin, Mansur Khan Habashi, and Muhammad Said Ardistani.
Ain-ul-Mulk (Minister for Military Affairs)	Head of Military Department	Appointed army officials, supervised military training, and prepared war strategies. Notable holders: Saif Khan and Mansoor Khan.
Nazir	Supervisor of Law and Ethics	Ensured adherence to ethical standards, laws, and the Sultan’s policies. Maintained law and order. Notable holders: Abu Talib (under Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah) and Meer Qasim (under Abdullah Qutb Shah).
Majumdar (Accountant-General)	Head of Accounts Department	Responsible for checking accounts of all departments. The Qutb Shahi rulers often preferred Hindus for this post. Narayan Rao served as Majumdar under Abdullah Qutb Shah.
Dabir (Diwan-e-Insha)	Royal Correspondence Officer	Translated and dispatched farmans (royal orders) and stamped approved documents. Notable holders included Qazi Muzaffar Ali and Moulana Owaisi.
Kotwal (Commissioner of Police)	Head of Police and Chief City Magistrate	Maintained law and order in the capital city, ensured safety of traders, and checked all persons entering the city. His efficiency was praised by European travelers Tavernier, Thevenot, and Bernier.
Sarkhel	Chief Revenue Officer at Capital	Exercised authority over districts, supervised provincial officers, and provided protection to foreign traders along the East Coast.
Hawaldar	Officer in charge of Government Stores	Responsible for managing government godowns and stables of horses and elephants.

2.Provincial Administration

Unit	Description
Tarafs	The kingdom was divided into provinces called Tarafs. Each province was administered by a Tarafdar (Governor).
Sarkars (Simi)	Subdivisions of Tarafs known as Sarkars. They were administered by Fauzdars, assisted by Hawaldars.
Parganas	Smaller administrative units within Sarkars.

Administrative Divisions under Different Rulers

Ruler	Details
Abdullah Qutb Shah	The kingdom was divided into six Tarafs, including Vinukonda, Kondapalli, Masulipatnam, Eluru, Rajahmundry, Visakhapatnam, and Bellamkonda.
Abul Hasan Tanashah	The kingdom was divided into 37 Sarkars and 517 Parganas.

Port Administration

Post	Role
Shah Bandhar	Head of the port town and responsible for managing trade and customs duties.
Machilipatnam	Major port of the Qutb Shahi kingdom, generating more than 1,80,000 pagodas annually.

Revenue Collection

Term	Description
Mustagirs	Revenue collectors who obtained the right to collect land revenue through an auction system. The contract was granted to the highest bidder.

Local Government (Village Level)

Official	Role
Muqaddam	Head of the village.
Kulkarni	Village accountant responsible for maintaining records.
Deshpande	Accounts officer at the Pargana level.
Others	Other local officials included Deshmukh, Thandedar, and Sthalakami, mentioned in Qutb Shahi farmans.

3.Military System of the Qutb Shahis

Aspect	Details
Model	The military system was organized on the model followed by the Bahmani Sultans.
Organization	A strong standing army was maintained under the direct control of the Sultan. The main forces were stationed at the capital.
Head	The military department was headed by the officer known as Ain-ul-Mulk.
Jagir System	The Sultan granted Jagirs to Tarafdars in return for maintaining a fixed number of soldiers and military forces.
Composition	The army consisted of soldiers from different communities including Hindus, Muslims, and Iranis.
Expenditure	A large portion of the state revenue was spent on the army. During the reign of Abul Hasan Tanashah, about 8,84,477 Hons annually were spent on army salaries.
Forts	Many strong forts were built and maintained under the supervision of experienced Fort Commanders.
Campaign Leadership	During military campaigns, the army was commanded by the officer known as Srilaskhar.

4.Judicial System of the Qutb Shahis

Aspect	Details
Legal Framework	The judicial system respected both Islamic law (Sharia) and local Hindu laws and customs.
Court Officials	Cases were heard and resolved by Qazis, Moulvis, and Hindu Pandits.

Special Courts

Court	Founder	Details
Dadmahal	Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah	Served as a royal justice court.
Aman Mahal	Abdullah Qutb Shah	Another royal justice court for hearing important cases.

Royal Justice

Aspect	Details
Royal Justice	The Sultan personally attended the court once every week and delivered judgments with the assistance of Qazis and Pandits.

Reputation of the Judicial System

Source	Praise
Tavernier	Praised the Qutb Shahi judicial system for delivering judgments without fear or favour.
Bernier	Also appreciated the fairness and efficiency of the Qutb Shahi justice system.

Land Revenue and Agrarian System of the Qutb Shahis

1. Land Measurement

Aspect	Details
Under Ibrahim Qutb Shah	Land was measured using a standard rope of 38 cubits.
Malkapuram Inscription	Records that villagers themselves conducted land measurement by mutual agreement.

2. Tenure

Type	Description
Mirasi Tenure	Most villages were held under this system. The term Mirasi meant hereditary rights over land.
Private Ownership	The Qutb Shahi rulers recognized the right of private individuals to own land.

3. Village Officials (Ayagars / Balutiyan)

Official	Role
Patel	Village headman.
Kulkarni	Village accountant.
Chaudari	Head of traders.
Potadar	Money changer.
Despandy	District accountant.
Nahani	Barber.
Parit	Washerman.
Gurav	Temple attendant.
Sutar	Carpenter.
Kumbhar	Potter.
Vesanar	Gatekeeper.
Joshi	Astrologer.

4. Encouragement of Agriculture

Aspect	Details
Policy	Followed the Kakatiya model and constructed numerous tanks and irrigation canals.
Tax Burden	Considered moderate and reasonable; peasants generally lived in peace.

5. Revenue Collection

Aspect	Details
Chief Source	Land revenue.
Total Revenue (1685–86)	From 22 Sarkars: 82,95,196 Hons (approximately Rs. 2,47,85,529 at Rs. 3 per Hon).
Karnataka Region	Additional revenue of 26,75,498 Hons from 16 Sarkars.
Largest Sarkar	Sikkol with 115 Parganas.
Smallest Sarkar	Melangur with 3 Parganas.
Highest Revenue Sarkar	Kovilkonda generating more than 1,05,10,517.14 Annas.
Other Sources	Income from diamond mines, which were leased to contractors.
Total Revenue (According to Siddiqui)	Approximately 5 crores, of which the Sultan saved nearly 1 crore annually after expenses.

The Qutb Shahi architectural style represents a syncretic blend of Persian, Pathan, and Hindu architectural traditions. Granite was the primary construction material and structures were decorated with beautiful stucco ornamentation.

1. Golconda Fort

Aspect	Details
Original Name	Mankal.
Early History	Originally built in 1143 CE as a mud fort by a Kakatiya ruler of Warangal.
Legend	According to tradition, a shepherd boy discovered an idol on Shepherd's Hill (Golla Konda). The Kakatiya king constructed a mud fort around the sacred spot.

Qutb Shahi Period

Aspect	Details
Fortification	Between the 14th and 17th centuries, the fort was strengthened by the Bahmani Sultans and extensively developed by the Qutb Shahi rulers.
Transformation	Converted into a massive granite fort extending about 5 kilometers in circumference.
Inner Fort	Contains ruins of royal palaces, mosques, and a hilltop pavilion rising about 130 meters above ground.

Architectural Marvels

Feature	Description
Defenses	Equipped with mounted cannons, four drawbridges, eight gateways, large halls, magazines, and stables.
Fateh Darwaza (Victory Gate)	Located in the outer enclosure. Named after the victory of Aurangzeb, whose army entered through this gate in 1687.
Acoustical Effect	A handclap near the entrance dome can be heard clearly at the hilltop pavilion nearly 1 km away. This served as a warning system against enemy attacks.

Later History

Aspect	Details
End of Qutb Shahi Rule	In 1687, the fort was captured by the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb, marking the end of the Qutb Shahi dynasty.
Present Status	Golconda Fort today stands as a symbol of Hyderabad's historical and architectural glory.

2. Purana Pul (The Old Bridge)

Aspect	Details
Overview	Historic bridge built over the River Musi in Hyderabad. It was the first bridge constructed in Hyderabad and is considered one of the oldest bridges in South India.
Construction	Constructed in 1578 CE during the reign of Ibrahim Qutb Shah. Some historians attribute its construction to Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah.
Purpose	Built to facilitate quick travel between Golconda Fort and the newly planned city of Hyderabad.
Legend	According to legend, Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah built the bridge to safely cross the Musi River in order to meet his beloved Bhagmati.

Structure

Feature	Measurement
Arches	22
Length	600 feet
Breadth	35 feet
Height above river bed	54 feet

Later History

Event	Details
1820	The bridge was repaired by Sikander Jah.
After 1908 Floods	The structure suffered damage during the disastrous 1908 Musi floods and was repaired again.
Current Status	No longer used for vehicular traffic. Currently functions as a flea market area and remains an important historical landmark of Hyderabad.

3. Mecca Masjid

Aspect	Details
Overview	Mecca Masjid is one of the most magnificent and impressive mosques in the Deccan region, located near Charminar in Hyderabad.

Construction

Aspect	Details
Foundation Laid	Laid in 1617 CE by Sultan Muhammad Qutb Shah.
Supervision	Construction supervised by Darogah Engineer Faizullah Baig and Choudari Rangaiah. Musa Khan was in charge of building work.
Workforce	About 8,000 workers were involved: 2,000 stone cutters, 2,000 masons, and 4,000 laborers. Approximately 700 pairs of bullocks were used to transport stones.
Total Expense	Approximately 30,00,000 Huns.
Completion Time	Construction lasted about 77 years and was completed during the reign of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb.

Structure

Feature	Measurement / Description
Capacity	Nearly 10,000 people can offer prayers at one time.
Main Building	225 ft long × 180 ft wide × 75 ft high.
Outer Enclosure	360 ft on each side (oblong shape).
Triple Vestibules	195 × 126 ft with 15 arches in each row; five massive arches form the main façade.
Domes	Northern and southern ends crowned by two large domes.
Minarets	Two lofty minarets in front of the main entrance gate, constructed during Aurangzeb's reign.
Sundial	A sundial located in the courtyard, also belonging to Aurangzeb's period.

Unique Feature

Aspect	Details
Sacred Bricks	Bricks brought from the holy city of Mecca were incorporated into the central arch of the mosque, giving the structure its sacred name "Mecca Masjid".

4. Darul Shifa

Aspect	Details
Overview	Darul Shifa was a unique double-storied building that served a dual purpose as both a hospital and a medical college during the Qutb Shahi period.
Construction	Built in 1595 CE by Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah.

Function

Function	Description
Hospital	Known as Daru'sh Shifa, it provided free medicines, lodging, and food for patients.
College	Functioned as a College of Unani Medicine. Students received government scholarships and were assured employment after obtaining medical degrees.

Significance

Aspect	Details
Historical Importance	Darul Shifa represents a remarkable example of a medieval state's commitment to public health and education.

5. Qutb Shahi Tombs

Aspect	Details
Overview	The Qutb Shahi Tombs are magnificent monuments erected in memory of the departed Golconda kings. They are among the oldest historical monuments of Hyderabad.
Location	Located about 1 km north of Golconda Fort’s Banjara Darwaza, set amidst beautifully landscaped gardens known as Ibrahim Bagh.

Architectural Style

Aspect	Details
Blend	A harmonious blend of Persian, Pathan, and Hindu architectural styles.
Material	Constructed using grey granite with intricate stucco ornamentation.
Uniqueness	It is the only place in the world where an entire ruling dynasty is buried at a single location.
Tombs Present	Contains the tombs of seven of the eight Qutb Shahi Sultans. The last ruler, Abul Hasan Tanashah, was not buried here.

Structure of Tombs

Feature	Description
Shape	Domed structures built on a square base, surrounded by pointed arches, forming a quadrangular shape.
Height	The tombs rise between 9 to 15 meters above the terrace.
Stories	Smaller tombs are single-storied, while larger tombs are two-storied.
Original Decoration	The domes were originally adorned with blue and green tiles, though only a few pieces remain today.
Furnishings	Interiors once contained chandeliers and soft canopies supported on silver poles.
Differentiation	The tombs of the Sultans are larger and more ornate compared to those of their family members.

Historical Significance

Aspect	Details
Qutb Shahi Period	The tombs were so revered that criminals who took refuge there were granted pardon.
Post-Dynasty	After the fall of the Qutb Shahi dynasty, the tombs were neglected until Salar Jung III undertook restoration work in the early 19th century.
Present Day	Currently maintained by the Department of Tourism, the site is a popular tourist destination and provides the most reliable evidence of Qutb Shahi architectural traditions.

1. Key Participants in Trade

Group	Role
Vaishyas / Komatis	Played a very active role in both internal and external trade.
Arab Traders	Prominent traders who supplied the best breed of horses for cavalry.
Portuguese Traders	Also played a prominent role in trade and supplied horses.
Dutch and English	The arrival of European trading companies significantly boosted external trade.

2. Trading Centers and Ports

Category	Names
Major Urban Centers	Golconda, Hyderabad, Warangal, Masulipatnam, Kondapalli, Penugonda
Chief Ports	Masulipatnam, Motupalli, Narasapuram, Kondapalli, Madras
Pilgrimage-cum-Trading Centers	Tirupati, Srisailam, Srikalahasti

Prominent Ports

Port	Significance
Masulipatnam	The most prominent port; exported finest quality textiles to European countries.
Kondapalli	Became an important trading hub after the arrival of European companies.
Narasapuram	Developed into a significant trading center.
Madras	Also emerged as an important trading hub.

3. Internal Trade and Transport

Carriage of Goods

Mode	Details
Land Transport	Goods were transported using bullock carts, oxen, donkeys, and tangas.
Perikas Community	Specialized traders who carried goods such as grain in jute sacks on their heads or using oxen.

Trade Networks

Region	Links
Inter-regional	Trade networks connected Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, and Bengal.
Inter-city	Golconda traders maintained strong links with Gulbarga, Aurangabad, Bijapur, and Madras.

Trade Routes

Route	Details
Major Route	The important trade route ran from Hyderabad to Machilipatnam via Nalgonda, Kondapalli, and Vijayawada.

Rural Trade

Aspect	Details
Local Markets	Rural products were sold in local markets.
Weekly Fairs	Regular Angadis (weekly fairs) were held in both large and small villages, serving as important centers for local exchange.

4. External Trade

Exports

Category	Items
Textiles	Dress cloth, carpets, and various fabrics
Gems and Minerals	Diamonds from the famous Golconda mines
Metals	Best quality iron; world-famous swords from Nirmal and Indur
Other	Indigo

Imports

Category	Items
Livestock	High-breed horses
Metals	Gold and lead
Food Items	Spices and dates
Miscellaneous	Crockery

5. Monetary System

Unit	Description
Honnu (Hon)	The chief currency of the kingdom; a gold coin. Foreign traders referred to it as 'Pagoda'.
Other Units	Panam, Thaar, Kasu
Regulation	Special officers were appointed to check weights and measurements regularly, protecting the public from cheating and ensuring fair trade practices.

6. Role of the State and Industry

State Patronage and Concessions

Aspect	Details
Encouragement	The state encouraged trade by providing tax concessions and various facilities to merchants.
Security	The government ensured security of traders and their merchandise.

Royal Workshops (Karkhanas)

Aspect	Details
Purpose	Produced high-quality clothes and articles for the royal family.
Impact	Helped establish high standards of craftsmanship throughout the kingdom.

Major Industries

Industry	Centers	Details
Textile	Golconda, Hyderabad, Warangal, Masulipatnam	The most important industry of the kingdom.
Ship-building	Narsapur, Masulipatnam	A flourishing maritime industry.
Iron and Steel	Nirmal, Indur	Produced high-quality swords which became major export items.

Literary Sources on Trade

Work	Details
Sukasapthati	Mentions traders, trade routes, and trading goods.
Hamsavimsati	Also refers to traders, trade routes, and commercial goods.
Rich Traders Mentioned	Vasumata, Visnudasa

Economic Conditions of the Qutb Shahis

Aspect	Details
Overview	The Golconda Kingdom was one of the richest medieval kingdoms in the Deccan. Its prosperity was mainly due to two factors: 1. Natural Wealth: Famous diamond mines of the Golconda state. 2. Fertile Land and Trade: Fertile coastal lands with abundant water resources and brisk foreign trade through the Machilipatnam port.

1. Agriculture and Irrigational Facilities

Aspect	Details
Primary Occupation	Agriculture was the chief occupation of the majority of the population.
Policy	The Qutb Shahi Sultans and officials actively encouraged agriculture.

Irrigation Works

Ruler / Official	Tank Constructed
Ibrahim Quli Qutb Shah	Hussain Sagar tank, Budwel tank, Ibrahimpatnam tank
Khanam Agha (Masehaba)	Constructed Maa Sahab Tank near Saifabad for public water supply.
Unnamed Officials	Built a tank at 'Durg' (about 5 km from Golconda Fort) using advanced hydrological engineering for the royal family and officials.

Tanks Repaired

Ruler / Official	Tank Repaired
Ibrahim Quli Qutb Shah	Pangal Tank (1551 CE inscription) and Udaya Samudram Tank
Rahmatullah and Annoji (Hawaldar)	Encouraged the repair of tanks and canals in the Nellore region, which increased agricultural land and production.

Revenue Sharing (from Pangal and Udaya Samudram Tanks)

Beneficiary	Share
King	1%
Peasants	1.5%
Brahmins	1%
Soldiers	1%

Cultivation

Aspect	Details
Cropping Season	Mainly from June to October.
Land Categories	Included Zamindari lands and other categories.
Commercial Crops	Large-scale cultivation of cotton, jute, pulses, fruits, and flowers.
Telangana Specialty	Known for large-scale cultivation of fruits and flowers. Traveler Thevenot described the varieties of grapes grown in the region.
Eluru Specialty	Famous for indigo cultivation.

Administrative Support

Aspect	Details
Instruction	The Sultans instructed officials at village, Sarkar, Pargana, and Taraf levels to protect and maintain local tanks and canals.
Incentive	Officials involved in irrigation maintenance were given extra salaries.

2. Industries of the Golconda Kingdom

Major Industries
Diamond cutting and polishing
Textile industry
Carpet industry
Ship-building industry
Saltpeter industry
Iron and Steel industry
Kalamkari industry

3. Diamonds of Golconda and the Diamond Industry

Aspect	Details
Global Fame	Golconda was world-famous for its best-quality diamonds, which had great demand in the European market.

Major Mines

Mine	Location
Kollur	Krishna district
Ramallakota	Kurnool district
Gollapalli, Mallavalli, Vajrakarur	-

Contemporary Accounts (Tavernier)

Aspect	Details
Operation Period	Diamond mines were in operation even during the Vijayanagar period.
Kollur Mine Visit (1640 CE)	About 60,000 workers including men, women, and children were engaged in digging, cleaning, and drying diamonds.

Famous Diamonds from Golconda Mines

Diamond
Kohinoor
Hope
Pitt
Pigot
Nizam

4. Textile Industry

Aspect	Details
Demand	Textiles were known for their excellent quality, colours, and designs, and had great demand in the European market.

Production Types

Type	Description
Plain Cotton Cloth	-
Muslin	Fine or superfine cloth mainly for internal consumption.
Calico	A stout cloth produced in different qualities depending on the fineness of yarn and thread count.
Chintz	A very popular printed textile.
Kalamkari	Produced at Masulipatnam, Palakollu, and Nizampatnam; highly prized.
Lungees	-

Famous Centers

Center	Specialty
Narasapuram	Known for best-quality calico cloth.
Golconda, Warangal	Produced various textiles for local use and export.

Designs and Varieties

Aspect	Details
Designs	Textiles and sarees featured prints of various flowers and leaves.
Varieties	Literature mentions varieties such as Maslin, Salempuri, and Palampur.

5. Carpet Industry

Aspect	Details
Fame	Golconda, especially Warangal, was famous for high-quality carpets.
Centers	Mettawada, Girmajipeta, Hasanparthy (Warangal), Machilipatnam, Eluru
Raw Material	Available in large quantities in the Telangana region.

6. Ship-Building Industry

Aspect	Details
Centers	Narsapuram, Bheemunipatnam (Bhimili), Machilipatnam
Clientele	English and other European merchants commissioned ships every year.
Materials	Best-quality teak wood and iron.
Foreign Accounts	Travelers Methwold and Shorer described big and small ships built by skilled workers at Narsapur.
Dutch Involvement	Dutch trading vessels were built at Bhimilipatnam, Narsapuram, Machilipatnam, and Pulicat.

7. Saltpeter Industry

Aspect	Details
Product Use	Saltpeter was a key ingredient in gunpowder used for firearms.
Centers	Masulipatnam, Narsapuram, Pulicat

Revolt of Sammakka and Sarakka

Aspect	Details
Overview	The Revolt of Sammakka and Sarakka is a legendary event in the history of Telangana. It represents the valiant resistance of the Koya tribe against the powerful Kakatiya kingdom. The event is commemorated through the famous Sammakka Sarakka Jatara, which is the largest tribal festival in the region.

1. Origins and Genealogy

Tribe and Beliefs

Aspect	Details
Tribe	Koya tribe
Ancestral Kingdoms	The Koya tribe established small kingdoms in parts of present-day Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, and Telangana, located south of the Vindhya mountains.
Worship	They worshipped the Mother Goddess and Lord Shiva.

Ancestors of Sammakka

Relative	Details
Clan	Belonged to the Chandavaru clan, which worshipped the deity Bandichikka.
Father	Rayibandani Raju – ruler of the Bhupalapatnam area in Warangal district.
Brother-in-law / Uncle	Samudra – ruler of the Kottapalli area in Bijapur taluk of Bastar district, Chhattisgarh. He belonged to the Naga clan, and two inscriptions of Naga rulers written in Telugu have been found there.

Marriage Alliance

Alliance	Details
Marriage	Rayibandani Raju married his daughter Sammakka to Pagididda Raju, the son of Samudra.
Relation to Kakatiyas	Pagididda Raju was the nephew of Medaraja II (1116–1158 CE), the ruler of the Polavasa region in Karimnagar district.
Kingship	After this alliance, Pagididda Raju became the king of the Medaram region.

2. The Medaram Region

Aspect	Details
Original Name	Originally known as Mouje Medaram (Mouje/Majji means village or Ooru).
Location	Historic Medaram is located in Dharmaram Mandal, Karimnagar district. (Another Medaram also exists in Warangal district.)
Associated Village	Majjempalli, located near Medaram in Dharmaram Mandal, which links the family to this region.
Heritage	Several dargahs, villages, and temples in the region are believed to have been constructed by the ancestors of Medaraju.

3. Conflict with the Kakatiyas

Early Conflicts

Date	Event
1138 CE	Kakatiya king Prola II fought against Medaraju, Pagididda Raju, and other regional rulers.
1159 CE	Pratapa Rudra I, the son of Prola II, also defeated them.

Refusal of Marriage Alliance

Aspect	Details
Primary Cause	The conflict intensified when Medaraju (Pagididda Raju) refused to give his daughter Sarakka in marriage to Pratapa Rudra.
Aftermath	According to the Hanamkonda Thousand Pillar Temple inscription, Medaraju relinquished the Polavasa kingdom and treasury and moved to the Manchukonda forest after crossing the Godavari river.
Sarakka's Fate	Sarakka remained a maiden (unmarried).
Associated Villages	Villages such as Kannepalli, Kannepeta, and Kannepuram are believed to have originated from her name (Kanne meaning maiden or virgin).

4. The Great Revolt and Battle

Event	Details
Migration	The family and their relatives migrated to the Medaram–Jaggayyapeta forest region in Warangal district and established a small kingdom.
Kakatiya Invasion	The armies of Pratapa Rudra (likely Pratapa Rudra II) invaded the region to subjugate them.

Battle of Dayyala Madugu

Aspect	Details
Duration	The battle lasted for about ten days.
Jampanna's Death	Jampanna, the son of Sammakka, fought bravely but was killed on the battlefield.
Jampanna Vaagu	The stream where he fell was later named Jampanna Vaagu (also called Sampangi Vaagu).
Sammakka's Entry	After many warriors had fallen, Sammakka entered the battlefield. Despite her great valor, she was wounded during the battle.
Sammakka's Curse	Before disappearing into the forest, Sammakka is believed to have cursed the Kakatiya dynasty, declaring that their reign would soon come to an end.
Sarakka's Fate	Sarakka also fought bravely and died in the battle.

5. Legacy and Commemoration

Aspect	Details
Fall of Kakatiyas	The Koya tribe believes that Sammakka's curse eventually came true and that the powerful Kakatiya empire declined and collapsed not long after the revolt.
Symbol of Resistance	Sammakka and Sarakka became enduring symbols of resistance against oppression in Telangana history.

Veeragals (Hero Stones)

Aspect	Details
Tradition	The tradition of carving Veeragals (hero stones) commemorates warriors who sacrificed their lives in battle.
Evidence	Hero stone statues of Dommaraju warriors with their names are still found in the region.

Welfare Activities and Folk Memory

Aspect	Details
Sammakka's Medicine	Sammakka was skilled in traditional medicine. She reportedly saved a snake-bitten person on her wedding day using herbal juice and treated people suffering from chronic diseases.
Burrikunta Pond	Constructed by the daughter-in-law of the Chanda clan.
Jalakam Bavi	A well built at Bayyakkapeta, which still exists today.
Medaram Tank	Constructed by the descendants of Sammakka; it helped many people survive during severe droughts.

Sammakka Sarakka Jatara

Aspect	Details
Significance	Considered the largest tribal religious festival in Asia.
Frequency	Held once every two years (biennial) at Medaram.
Attendance	Millions of devotees gather to pay homage to the mother–daughter duo.
Living Testament	The festival stands as a living testament to the enduring legacy and respect for Sammakka and Sarakka among the people.

1. Introduction

Aspect	Details
Period	This period began after the fall of the Qutb Shahi dynasty and the establishment of Mughal rule in the Deccan.
Role	He emerged as a prominent rebel leader who strove to liberate the people of Telangana from the Mughal Viceroys.
Struggle Period	The struggle continued approximately from 1695 CE to 1710 CE.
Target	The revolt was directed against dominant social groups and ruling classes that supported the Mughal administration.
Main Center	The main center of activity was Khalishpur, located northeast of Warangal, about 50 km from Hyderabad.

2. Early Life and Ambitions

Aspect	Details
Native Village	Tarikonda, located about 25 km northwest of Warangal.
Caste	Belonged to the 'Kallu Gita' or Goud caste, a traditional toddy-tapping community.
Ambition	From a young age, he refused to take up the traditional caste-based profession and aspired for a different path.

3. Rise to Rebellion

Event	Details
Initial Activities	His activities began soon after the Mughal army occupied the Golconda kingdom. He constructed a small fort at Tarikonda and started opposing the faujdars and zamindars who supported the Mughal emperor.
Association with Venkata Rao	For some time he served in the army of Venkata Rao, the zamindar of Kaulas.
Arrest and Release	The alliance did not last long. Venkata Rao later attacked and arrested Papanna, but he was eventually released.
Venkata Rao's Defection (1701 CE)	In 1701 CE, Venkata Rao accepted Mughal authority, disbanded his army, and was awarded the position of Mansabdar. He became the first Telugu zamindar to join the Mughal ranks.

4. Conflict with the Mughals

Defeat and Killing of Qasim Khan

Aspect	Details
Appointment	Aurangzeb appointed Qasim Khan, the faujdar of Kolanupaka, to suppress Sarvai Papanna.
Battle	The battle took place at Kolanupaka.
Outcome	Papanna's forces emerged victorious and Qasim Khan was killed.
Significance	This victory greatly enhanced Papanna's reputation and established him as a major threat to Mughal authority in Telangana.

Confrontation with Rustumdil Khan (1702 CE)

Aspect	Details
Commander	Rustumdil Khan, the Deputy Governor of the Hyderabad Suba, led a large army against Papanna.
Outcome	Papanna and his close associate Sarvadu managed to escape, though the Tarikonda fort was partially destroyed.
Result	Despite the attack, the Mughals failed to achieve a complete victory.

Rebuilding at Khilashapur

Aspect	Details
Action	After Rustumdil Khan returned to Hyderabad, Papanna regrouped at Khilashapur.
New Fort	With the help of Sarvadu and Purdhil Khan, he constructed a new and stronger stone fort.

Internal Conflict

Event	Details
Conflict	A dispute arose between Sarvadu and Purdhil Khan.
Outcome	Both killed each other during the conflict.
Result	After their deaths, Sarvai Papanna became the sole and undisputed opponent of Mughal authority in Telangana.

Second Futile Attempt (1706 CE)

Aspect	Details
Attempt	In 1706 CE, Rustumdil Khan made another attempt to suppress Papanna.
Outcome	The attempt was unsuccessful.

5. Peak of Power and Recognition

Taking Advantage of Mughal Succession War

Event	Date	Details
Aurangzeb's Death	February 1707 CE	The death of Aurangzeb triggered a war of succession among his sons.
Capture of Warangal Fort	April 1708 CE	Taking advantage of the political instability, Sarvai Papanna went on the offensive and captured Warangal Fort.
Capture of Bhuvanagiri Fort	June 1708 CE	Papanna secured another strategic victory by capturing Bhuvanagiri Fort.

Economic Development

Aspect	Details
Agriculture	Agriculture was greatly encouraged in the Khilashapur region.
Result	Increased agricultural production led to higher revenue, which replenished the treasury and strengthened Papanna's position.

Recognition by Mughal Emperor

Event	Details
Background	By January 1707, Hyderabad had become the center of Mughal politics in the Deccan. After the succession struggle, Bahadur Shah I emerged victorious.
Coronation	Bahadur Shah I was crowned as Mughal emperor in 1707 CE.
People's Darbar	A grand darbar was organized in Hyderabad where several zamindars and chieftains, including Sarvai Papanna, were invited.
Honor	The emperor officially recognized Papanna as a king and presented him with a 'Robe of Honor'.
Papanna's Offering	Papanna presented vast wealth and tribute to the emperor.

6. Aftermath and Legacy

Aspect	Details
Resentment	The recognition of a former rebel and low-caste leader by the Mughal emperor created resentment, especially among local high-class Muslims (Shah-i-Nayath).
Legacy	The story of Sarvai Papanna remains a powerful symbol of resistance against oppression in the collective memory of Telangana.
Historical Significance	His life and struggle highlight the social tensions and complex power dynamics in the Deccan following the collapse of the Qutb Shahi dynasty.

Qutb Shahi Dynasty – Summary

Aspect	Details
Period	1512 – 1687 CE
Founder	Sultan Quli Qutb Shah
Last Ruler	Abul Hasan Tanashah
Capital	Golconda (initially); later shifted to Hyderabad
Total Rulers	8 rulers
Major Rivals	Vijayanagar, Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Bidar, Mughals, and Marathas
Key Inscriptions	Ghazinagar, Darus Shifa, Pangal, Koilkonda
Key Literary Source	Basantin-us-Salatin by Mirza Ibrahim Zubari
Major Architectural Contributions	Golconda Fort, Charminar, Mecca Masjid, Qutb Shahi Tombs, Purana Pul, Darul Shifa
Economic Strength	Famous diamond mines, thriving textile industry, and active trade through Machilipatnam port
Date of Decline	1687 CE – conquest by Aurangzeb
Legacy	A rich syncretic culture, remarkable architectural monuments, flourishing trade and commerce, and strong Telugu–Persian literary patronage.